Lesson summary on the topic “Cleaning a fruit tree trunk with a scraper.”

Home Country garden

The structure of a fruit tree includes underground and aboveground parts. The underground part of a fruit tree is its root system, on the health of which subsequent yield largely depends. The above-ground part consists of a trunk, branches, as well as shoots with buds and ringlets formed on them. Read the photo and description of the structure of fruit trees before you start planting your garden - this will help you plant the seedlings correctly and take proper care of them.

• 2 Fruit tree trunk parts
• 3 Root system of a fruit tree: types of roots
• 4 Wood and bark of a fruit tree (with photo)
• 5 Shoots and buds of the fruit tree

Skeletal and semi-skeletal branches of a fruit tree

The structure of a fruit tree in the photo

As a rule, most varietal fruit trees are not rooted, but grafted. The length of annual increments depends on the variety and type of rootstock - for an apple tree on a vigorous rootstock it is 50-60 cm, on a dwarf rootstock - 20-30 cm.

Excessively large increases may indicate that the plant is overfed. A decrease in the length of annual growth or its absence is a signal that the tree is depressed and requires close attention. A healthy tree with proper agricultural technology has enough strength to both grow and bear fruit.

In fruit trees, shoots directed vertically are “aimed” at growth and expansion of vegetative mass. Shoots located horizontally are “responsible” for reproduction. Accordingly, the more horizontal the branch is, the more flowers and fruits it will have, this is determined by the balance and distribution of plant hormones.

Large branches that extend from the trunk are called skeletal. Usually they form tiers, each tier has 3-5 branches, then a gap. Branches of the same tier should face in different directions. In addition, it is important that the divergence angle between them is approximately the same. The branches of two adjacent tiers should not be located on top of each other.

In addition to skeletal branches, semi-skeletal branches - smaller in size and not included in tiers - can also extend from the trunk.

On skeletal and semi-skeletal branches branches of the second order are formed, on these, in turn, branches of the third order, and so on. The most recent degree of branching is the overgrowing branches; it is on them that flowers and fruits are formed.

Below you can read the description of the fruit tree trunk.

Trimming methods

When pruning, various variants of two pruning methods are used - shortening and thinning.

Shortening is carried out when it is necessary to awaken buds and shoots to growth. In annual branches, the shortening cut is made above the bud, in perennial branches - above some branch (pruning for transfer). Shortening causes increased growth of shoots and branches located below the pruning site. At the same time, stronger, healthy branched shoots are formed, and the exposure of branches is limited, the shoots are covered with fruit branches.

Thinning - removing, cutting out branches that are not needed for building the crown. This technique provides access to light and air to the internal parts of the crown, which contributes to greater durability of semi-skeletal and overgrowing branches - it prevents exposure of the tree skeleton. During the fruiting period, thinning of growth shoots and fruit branches ensures an optimal balance between growth and fruiting.

In addition to these methods, additional techniques began to be increasingly used - blinding the buds, breaking off shoots, tweezing (pinching), changing the orientation of branches (various ways of tilting shoots and branches). And much less often they use kerbovka, ringing, fruit belt and root pruning.

Formative pruning of young trees is aimed at creating a tree skeleton and a strong crown. This is achieved through the correct placement of branches, ensuring their subordination, in which each skeletal branch occupies its own space, without shading or oppressing neighboring branches. This pruning promotes the productive functioning of the leaf apparatus and accelerates the formation of flower buds and fruits.

Young trees are usually planted at the age of two. Already in the nursery, several lateral branches and a central conductor have formed on them, which, after planting in the garden, are used to form the crown of the tree.

Crown formation . Most gardeners grow free-form canopy trees using the naturally formed branches of the seedlings. The most acceptable and technically easier to implement is a sparsely tiered crown.

This system is good for pome and stone fruits. It consists of a central conductor and 5-6 main skeletal branches. In Fig. 3 it can be seen that the first 3 branches are placed in a tier, the rest are placed individually along the length of the conductor. The choice of such a number of branches is due to the large number of shoots on the seedling.

If the number of shoots is small, you can leave 2 branches in the tier. The distance between adjacent branches in a tier should be 12-15 cm. In this case, branches are selected that are more deviated from the trunk (divergence angles should approach 60°) and located on different sides of the trunk (divergence angles between adjacent branches - 90-130°), so that their bases do not close when they grow, and between them along the trunk there are gaps with strips of bark. This allows the branches to grow firmly into the trunk and create a more direct connection between each branch and the root system.

In Fig. Figure 3 shows that above the tier of lateral shoots on the conductor there are single branches. To avoid weakening of the conductor, the number of such branches must be equal to or greater than the number of branches in the tier. All single skeletal branches are brought out in the spaces between the branches of the lower tier. The crown height is limited to 2.5-3 m by cutting to a horizontal branch, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fruit tree trunk parts

The part of the trunk of a fruit tree from ground level to the lowest skeletal branch is called the trunk. The optimal height of the trunk is 60-80 cm. A lower trunk makes it difficult to care for - branches will get in the way, and a trunk that is too high will make it drag.

The part of the trunk between the lowest and highest branches is called the central conductor.

The trunk of the fruit tree gradually becomes thinner, and at the very top it turns into a continuation shoot, or leader shoot. The leader grows every year, and due to this the tree increases in height.

Quite often, strong shoots directed almost vertically are visible next to the leader - they are called competitors. Since competitors are actively growing and directed at sharp angles, they are cut out - otherwise dangerous areas of potential faults will form. Bending competitive shoots to a more horizontal position can be difficult and not always advisable.

Very strong vertical shoots are called fat shoots or “tops”. They are distinguished by elongated internodes, their leaves are large and may even differ from those typical for a particular variety. Spinning tops usually appear in the crowns of old trees or when skeletal or semi-skeletal branches are strongly bent. An abundance of tops is often a signal of trouble.

Types of fruit tree crowns

Sparsely tiered crown

This is a type of free crown, a hemisphere familiar to everyone, the lower tier of which consists of a pair of skeletal branches spaced evenly around the circumference. The rest must be removed.

The next tier is usually located about 55 centimeters from the top of the first. The next tier usually consists of a pair of skeletal branches, but they, as a rule, should be located less frequently.

The central conductor, which is located above, is usually cut out.

In warm regions, the formation of the third order is allowed, but in cold regions it is excluded.

Photo: Sparse-tiered variation.

What's the result? We have a tree about 4 m high, with a combination of tiering and single branch arrangement. Between branches, as a rule, 55 cm-1 meter. If the variety has a spreading crown, then the distance is shorter. And vice versa.

Now cherries, plums, sweet cherries, and pears are formed in a similar way. This is how an apple tree is formed everywhere.

Whorled-tiered type

This is also a variant of the hemispherical crown familiar to our eyes. However, here on the lower tier there are already two pairs of branches, and on the next, as a rule, three branches are located through the bud. The distance between tiers is 50 cm.

It’s easy to do: just identify and find a bud at a height of 50 cm from the soil. This will be the first skeletal branch of the lower tier. Having retreated the length of the pencil, you should leave a couple more buds oriented in different directions above it. Then, above the fourth bud, which will later become a continuation shoot, it is necessary to cut off the shoot, always without a stump. This is how we will form the beginning easily and clearly.

Photo: Whorled-tiered type.

Next season (a year later) we will begin the second tier. Here, on the finished continuation shoot, you should retreat 50 cm upward and again leave two or three buds with a distance between them of approximately 15-20 cm.

Much, of course, depends on the seedling. So, if its size allows, then you can measure 40 centimeters upward and mark a couple more buds, and above them make a cut and remove the leader.

In this simple way, already in the third season we will have a perfectly formed seedling with two or slightly more tiers.

So, we have a specimen up to 3 meters high with about 10 skeletal branches, arranged in close whorls, usually several in number, and the distance between tiers is approximately 50 cm. Again, a lot depends on the variety. So, for example, a variety with a spreading type will have less spacing. And vice versa.

This way you can form any fruit trees. But remember: they turn out large.

Tierless crown

Another type of hemispherical crown. There is a rule here: from 5 to 8 skeletal branches, located as sparsely and evenly as possible, moving 35 cm from each other. The conductor must be shortened so that it ends up 20 cm above the skeletal branches.

Photo: Tierless type.

The establishment of the main branches occurs within three or four seasons from the moment of planting. The main thing is to monitor the angle of deviation from the trunk: it should be at least 45 degrees, this is the only way you will form a strong skeleton. As for the conductor, it must certainly be developed significantly better than the skeletal branches.

When pruning, take into account the placement of buds on the shoots. As a result, they should grow in the right direction. For example, trees with a pyramidal crown need to be pruned at the outer bud to make them wider. If you prune to the inner bud, the branches will be more vertical, especially in spreading plants with hanging shoots. You can tie up the shoots, giving them optimal direction.

A scheme with 4 or 5 main branches will help save space on the site. You will get the most real small-sized ones. This way you can form trees that are highly branched or have a small distance between the skeletal branches.

Photo: When pruning, take into account the placement of buds on the shoots.

Combined crown

A type of rounded crown. Combines all the advantages described above. Therefore, there are options.

Nowadays, they usually lay the first tier, where there are from three to five branches, placed through 2-3 buds and growing in opposite directions. You can also leave a spare shoot in case another main branch suddenly breaks.

The main branches are usually placed 35-40 cm above the one below.

As for the second order, they need to be laid at the bottom approximately 35-40 cm from the trunk. The next ones are already at 45–55 cm. This way the tree will be well lit, each branch will have fruit.

What's special about this? The lower branches are usually left so that they are raised, and it is better to bend the upper ones with clothespins or spacers. The point is that they should be in a horizontal position. This way you can form cherries, plums, cherries, apples and pears.

Photo: Combined option.

Fusiform type

This is usually an option for trees with a large number of semi-skeletal branches that are located horizontally (although the lower ones can be raised, which makes maintenance much easier). They are often placed along the conductor; they look like a uniform spiral (one or four buds from each other).

When completing placement on the site, the plants are not pruned in the first autumn. Better - next season, in August. They are bent to a horizontal position and fixed.

The next season, when spring comes, it is necessary to intensify fouling of the stem. To do this, the continuation shoots must be cut at a height of about 35 cm from the topmost branch that you bent earlier. After another season, this action can be correctly repeated, the young shoots can be transferred to a horizontal position. The process is very long, usually from 6 to 7 years.

Photo: Spindle-shaped version.

As a result, a fully formed tree will have a height and diameter of about three meters. This way you can form any low-growing trees, early-fruiting cultivars that have a ringed fruiting variant.

Bush-like (bush-like) crown

The number of skeletal branches varies from 5 to 8. They have a very wide angle of departure, as well as being located at a distance of about 10 cm from one another - this is the most correct option. The 3-4 lower ones are usually placed in a tier, the remaining ones - individually.

Second season. All growths must be shortened by cutting off a third of their length. At the same time, leave the shoots located below longer than the short ones. The main shoot should be shortened so that it is slightly higher than the last side branch. To do this, wait until it takes a stable direction of its growth. It remains to thin out the crown every season to enhance fruiting.

Photo: Bush type.

There are many different options: creeping, slate-shaped, shrub-shaped. They differ only in that they allow the shoots to be literally spread out on the soil surface, which is only relevant for the northern regions. But the essence of pruning does not change at all.

Semi-flat crown

This is a cross between the traditional oval and flat version. The shape turns out to be a little elongated, especially along the row, as well as compressed or flattened (as you like). From the row-spacing side, the plant fully develops.

Has a central conductor. 4-6 skeletal branches of the first order are placed in the plane of the row, usually in tiers: a pair in each, the branch does not face the row. The branches grow at an angle of 45 to 55 degrees relative to the stem. The distance between the tier can vary greatly (from 60 to 90 cm). The taller the tree, the greater the distance.

On branches of the skeletal type and the first order, branches of the semi-skeletal type are laid evenly on both sides (the distance from each other is 25-30 cm, from the trunk - 35-40 cm). Then it remains to periodically thin the crown and shorten the central conductor.

Photo: It is necessary to periodically thin the crown and shorten the central conductor.

This way you can shape plums, apricots, apples and pears. It is better to use for those varieties that are grafted onto seed and medium-sized rootstocks.

Flat version

These variations are characteristic of the modern garden. For example, palmette: all skeletal branches of the first order are located in a single vertical plane, which runs strictly along the line of the row. Consequently, all trees placed close to each other will close with their shoots, forming a fruit wall. This type comes in combination with drip irrigation and a trellis. It should start from the first year of the seedling’s life.

Cordon. The plants have an elongated trunk; it usually bears short fruiting branches. It can be brought to perfection by pruning side shoots in the spring, as well as by repeatedly pinching young growths and inhibiting their active growth.

Photo: Cordon.

Ideal for any intensive planting if you want to get maximum yield in terms of yield.

Root system of a fruit tree: types of roots

At ground level, the trunk smoothly transitions into the root system. This place is called the root collar. When planting, the root collar should be slightly below the soil level - the soil will naturally settle and the root collar will be at the desired level.

Just like branches, the roots of fruit trees come in several types: skeletal, semi-skeletal and overgrowing. The thinnest, overgrowing roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, and the rest of the root system delivers them to the above-ground part.

The root system of a tree occupies a large volume - no less than the above-ground part. The total length of all roots is hundreds of kilometers. Under favorable conditions, the root system penetrates to a depth of several meters, which is comparable to the height of the tree, and its diameter is slightly larger than the diameter of the crown. Therefore, fertilizers are always applied along the projection of the crown or a little wider - it is in this zone that the most young roots are located. Mature fruit trees do not tolerate transplantation well due to the inevitable serious damage to the root system.

Your tree looks healthy, you planted it in a sunny place protected from the winds, made a proper, voluminous planting hole and filled it with fertilizers, but there is no growth? Most likely, a serious mistake was made - deepening the root collar. In this case, the bark of fruit trees begins to rot, annual growth decreases sharply, and the plant may die. If the tree is young, you can dig it up and replant it, but this time correctly. In the case of an adult tree, there is only one way out - carefully rake away the soil, trying not to damage the roots. The result is a funnel in which water can stagnate - therefore, especially on heavy soils, it is necessary to take care of drainage - fruit trees do not survive in water and in a swamp.

When you choose a place to plant a fruit tree, be sure to check the dimensions of an adult plant of this variety in reference books in order to retreat at the correct distance from other trees and buildings. It is recommended that the distance between two neighboring trees be no less than the arithmetic average of their diameters, and the diameter of most varieties of fruit trees is approximately equal to their height. So, if your mature trees have a diameter of 6 and 4 m, then the distance between them should be at least 5 m.

The roots not only “feed” the plant with water and minerals dissolved in it, but also participate in hormonal regulation and act as an anchor, fixing the plant in the soil. The tips of the roots are able to distinguish between “up” and “down” and grow downward under the influence of gravity. Two reasons that cause them to “deviate from course” are the search for available water or the need to go around an obstacle, such as a large rock.

The root system of fruit trees is very vulnerable, so in snowless winters the plants die entirely due to freezing of the roots. For normal root development, the soil must be fertile and loose. A useful technique is mulching. In many gardens, the soil is kept under sod. Both of these techniques prevent the roots from overheating and retain moisture.

When the roots reach groundwater, the tree dies. Therefore, if groundwater is close to your site, it is advisable to plant a garden on dwarf rootstocks, as well as plant trees on low hills (up to 50 cm).

Buds may sometimes appear on the root collar. This is how basal shoots appear. Its appearance may be the result of severe damage to the crown.

Any plant releases various substances into the environment.

Excretions from the root system inhibit the germination of seeds of their own species - therefore, although the apple does not fall far from the tree, the seeds will germinate only if the distance is large enough - this biological mechanism ensures the development of new territories and expansion of the species' range. In some cases, the secretions of some plants stimulate the growth of others, in others they inhibit them. Stone fruits inhibit the growth and development of pome crops, so they must be placed so that the root systems of the trees do not touch

Text of the book “Formation and pruning of an orchard”

Pruning old trees

Pruning neglected trees is called rejuvenating and has its own characteristics.
Such trees should not be subjected to very strong pruning and attempts to correct previously made mistakes in one year. Rejuvenation is best done gradually over two to three years. For old and damaged trees, in which growth has completely stopped, the ends of the skeletal branches have begun to dry out and tops appear inside the crown, more severe shortening is applied - this is rejuvenation.

The appearance of a large number of tops indicates that the trees are old and need to be rejuvenated.

Tops are vertically growing growths up to 2 m long. They develop from dormant buds along skeletal branches and branches on aging branches, in the upper parts of which growth has stopped.

Typically, correction begins with the removal of one or two large skeletal branches that carry a large number of branches and overgrown branches. You should not remove 3-4 skeletal branches in one year and create large wounds, but you also cannot cut off only many small overgrowing branches on skeletal branches. It is better to cut out one large skeletal thickening branch than 2-3 medium branches or a large number of overgrowing branches.

You will need to take care of the rejuvenated crown: cut out excess shoots and give the correct direction to the newly growing branches. Rejuvenated trees, with good care, will be able to produce a full harvest in 3–4 years.

In older trees, skeletal and semi-skeletal branches are shortened by 5–7 and even 10-year-old wood, and fruit branches are shortened by 1/2 of their length.

Scientists have found that when pruning old apple trees, skeletal and semi-skeletal branches should be shortened by the growth (at least 35–40 cm) that was achieved during the intensive growth of the tree. Moreover, it is counted from the end of the branch.

It is believed that when pruning old apple trees, you should not shorten them into rings or fruit. Only the zone of dormant buds located on the lower part of a well-growing shoot (35–40 cm) is shortened.

The next year, after pruning old apple trees, restoration processes occur in places where the branches are shortened, and they (the branches) are the same in growth strength as those that grew before pruning. This depends on the varietal characteristics of the apple tree, its physical and biological condition, agricultural technology and the presence of moisture in the garden. There may be 2–3 or more such increments. Consequently, the set goal of rejuvenating the fruit tree by pruning has been achieved.

If, after rejuvenating pruning of old apple trees, there are a lot of restored growths and they thicken the crown and go at an acute angle, they should be thinned out by cutting them into rings (the stronger ones first). The remaining growth should not be shortened under any circumstances, otherwise it will cause growth again. In the second year after pruning old apple trees, this growth is covered with fruits.

Wounds should be covered with oil paint made from drying oil or with garden varnish. Sections should be covered with a thin, even layer of varnish. It is unacceptable for it to hang in tatters. Wounds with a diameter of less than 1 cm do not need to be covered. The smoother the surface, the faster the wounds heal.

Crown shapes

In the Central Chernozem zone, the following main forms of crowns are recommended: modified sparsely layered, rounded spindle-shaped, semi-flat and flat spindle-shaped.

A modified sparsely-tiered crown with one order of main (skeletal) branches (Fig. 9) consists of five main branches, the total height of the tree is not more than 3 m. The lower part of the crown consists of two adjacent or close branches. The remaining branches form sparsely (singly) along the trunk at intervals of 40–60 cm. The higher the branch is located along the trunk, the smaller the interval from the previous branch. Skeletal branches are placed at an angle of 45° to the row line. Single or group semi-skeletal branches no more than 2 m long are formed on them at intervals of 30–50 cm. In the 8–10th year, after two years of marketable fruiting and in a harvest year, the central conductor is cut out above the last side branch. The crown width at the base is 3–3.5 m.

Rice. 9. Formation of a modified sparsely-tiered crown with one order of skeletal branches: a – pruning of planted annuals; b – pruning in the spring of next year; c – pruning in the 3rd year (deviation of intermediate branches to a horizontal position); d – diagram of the formed tree; e – placement of skeletal branches in space; 1–5 – skeletal branches

This forming is recommended for most varieties of apple and pear trees.

The rounded fusiform crown (free spindle) (Fig. 10) consists of a well-developed central conductor (trunk) and semi-skeletal branches arranged in tiers along the trunk. The lower tier should consist of 5–7 semi-skeletal branches with angles of deviation from the trunk of 55–65°. In the remaining tiers, the number of branches is arbitrary with the angles of deflection of the branches in the middle tiers being 65–75°, and in the upper tiers – up to a horizontal position (90°). The intervals between tiers are 40–50 cm. The height of the crown should not exceed 3 m, the width at the bottom – 2.5–3 m, and at the top – 1.5–2 m. The central conductor after three marketable fruitings is cut out above the side branch. This formation is the simplest and most effective for varieties that bear fruit on long fruit structures (twigs and spears).

The semi-flat crown (Fig. 11) consists of a well-developed central conductor and 4–6 skeletal branches located at an angle of no more than 25–30° to the row line. Semi-skeletal branches are formed on the skeletal branches, which are placed singly or in groups with an interval of 40–50 cm and no more than 1.5 m long. The lower tier must be laid from two oppositely located strong branches of the lower tier with an interval of up to 25 cm. The remaining skeletal branches are placed along the trunk solitary and sparse. The third branch is laid at a height of at least 60 cm from the upper branch of the lower tier, and the remaining skeletal branches - at intervals of 40–50 cm. The height and width of the crown at the base is no more than 3.5 m.

Rice. 10. Formation of a round and flat spindle-shaped crown: a – beginning of crown formation (beginning of summer of the 3rd year); b – diagram of the formed tree; c – placement of semi-skeletal branches of a round shape in space; d – placement of skeletal and semi-skeletal branches of a flat crown in space

Rice. 11. Formation of a semi-flat crown: a – beginning of crown formation (beginning of summer of the 3rd year); b – diagram of the formed tree; c – placement of skeletal branches of a semi-flat crown in space

The flat spindle-shaped crown consists of a well-developed central conductor (trunk), two oppositely located adjacent skeletal branches in the lower part of the crown, forming the basis of the semi-flat crown, and semi-skeletal branches in the upper part, forming the basis of the spindle-shaped crown. Between the skeletal branches, an interval of 20–30 cm is acceptable. All skeletal and semi-skeletal branches are formed in the plane of the row. The skeletal branches of the lower tier should have an angle of deviation from the trunk of 55–60°, and all semi-skeletal branches should be given a horizontal position in the upper or slightly elevated position in the middle part of the crown. Semi-skeletal branches are placed evenly along the trunk at intervals of 20–30 cm or in tiers at intervals of 40–50 cm. The length of semi-skeletal branches in the lower part of the crown, located along the row, should not exceed 1.8 m, and in the upper part – 1.5 m. The length of semi-skeletal branches towards row spacing should not exceed 1.25 m, i.e. the optimal canopy thickness. The crown height is 3 m, the width along the row line is 3–4 m, the thickness towards the row spacing is no more than 2.5 m.

Rice. 12. Removing a branch onto a ring: a and b – incorrect cut; c – correct cut

It is also necessary to note other forms of crowns: two-tiered lobed, improved cup-shaped, columnar, palmette, etc., which are less commonly used in our gardens, but are of interest to amateur gardeners.

How to cut a branch correctly

The branches are pruned above a well-developed outer bud so that the shoots grow not inside the crown, but to the sides. Hanging branches, on the contrary, are cut off above the inner bud.

It is important to correctly cut the branch above the bud (Fig. 3). Large branches are cut off above one of the side branches (Fig. 15). The entire branch is cut into a ring (Fig. 12).

Just like roots, tree branches are trimmed only with sharp garden pruners or a knife.

The branches of seedlings are pruned in the spring, immediately after planting. In the case of autumn planting, pruning is still postponed until spring, but the roots are trimmed.

Conversion of annual growth into a fruitful branch

A highly developed annual growth (shoot) can be turned into a fruit-bearing branch over several years by pruning it annually (Fig. 13).

Rice. 13. Transformation of strong one-year growth into a fruit-bearing branch

First year. Without pruning, the lower buds on the shoot usually do not awaken. To cause their growth, you need to cut off the shoot, leaving 4–6 well-developed buds on it. Over the course of a year, approximately 3–4 strong shoots and a spear (a) grow from them, and undeveloped buds remain at the base of the branch (d).

Second year. To prevent dormant buds (d) from giving strong growth, but turning into developed ringlets and spears, a shoot is left above them, which will partially divert nutrients. It is also shortened above 4–6 buds. A two-year-old branch of two shoots is cut off.

Third year. The diagram shows the formation of a fruit twig (c), a spear (a) and still weak ringlets (b). To enhance nutrition and development of these fruiting branches, the growth above them is cut off, leaving only one slightly shortened shoot. Subsequently, the fruit branches begin to bear fruit.

If in subsequent years strong shoots appear on the branches again, they must be turned into fruit-bearing shoots using the same method.

Features of cherry pruning

Cherry trees need pruning just like apple and pear trees. After planting and before fruiting begins, the cherry seedling is formed, avoiding thickening. Interfering branches are cut into a ring, and if it is necessary to change the direction of growth, they are cut off above one of the side branches or, tied up, taken to the side.

Branches that grow strongly are shortened, which promotes the development of lateral branches. But medium and weak growths are not shortened, since all the lateral buds on them, located in the upper part, are fruit-bearing, and the growth buds are only the apical ones. If such an apical bud is cut off, the annual growth after fruiting may dry out.

Rice. 14. Pruning the cherry fruit tree. Formation of a sparsely layered crown with one order of skeletal branches: a – pruning of planted annuals; b – pruning in the spring of next year; c – pruning in the third year (deviation of intermediate branches to a horizontal position); d – pruning in the 5th year

During the fruiting period, trees mainly need to thin out the crown and maintain annual growth.

The crown of the cherry tree becomes very thick, and therefore, early in the spring, before the buds swell, dry branches, intertwined and thickened, are cut out. The wounds after pruning are covered with garden varnish.

Cherries bear fruit on last year's growths. As the tree ages, growth noticeably decreases and does not exceed 15–20 cm, and the branches become bare. During this period, the branches are rejuvenated: they are shortened by cutting off a side branch growing in a convenient direction. Depending on the degree of exposure, the branches are shortened to two to three year old wood. When shortening hanging branches, they are cut above a side branch, which is directed upward and conveniently located in relation to other branches, but does not thicken the crown and does not grow inside it.

When fatty shoots (tops) appear inside the crown, they are shortened to create branches, but on the condition that this does not lead to thickening of the crown.

Features of pruning cherries

Cherry trees need pruning, like any fruit tree. To form cherries, a sparsely tiered crown is used. With this approach, upon completion of formation, the tree skeleton should have 6–8 skeletal branches. Moreover, the first 3–4 are located in the lower tier. The branches of the first tier should be on different sides of the conductor, and not above each other. The remaining skeletal branches are formed above the first tier at a distance of 40–50 cm from each other. If you look from above, then they should fill the gaps between the branches of the first tier.

On an annual seedling, the height of the trunk is measured at 30–50 cm. 4–6 buds are counted from the upper border of the trunk and cut off above the top.

Next year, 3-4 branches are selected from the grown side shoots to form the first tier. The lowest shoot is shortened to 50–60 cm, and the rest are cut off at its level. Next, on the central conductor, measure 60–70 cm from the top branch of the first tier, count 4 buds and cut them.

In the spring of the third year in the first tier, the lowest skeletal branch is left without pruning, the growths of the remaining skeletal branches are pruned at its level. Strong competitors located at an acute angle to the skeletal branches and shoots growing inside the crown are removed. From the strong branches directed outwards of the crown, skeletal branches of the second order begin to form. For this purpose, shoots located at a distance of at least 30 cm from the central conductor are suitable. If the branches of the second order are longer than the shoot of the skeletal branch of the 1st order, then they are cut so that they become 10–15 cm shorter than the latter.

Rice. 15. Pruning on a side branch: on the left - before pruning; on the right – after pruning (the dotted lines show the cut branches and their parts)

On the central conductor, 40–50 cm are measured from the second tier, marked, 4–6 buds are counted and cut. These buds will give rise to the skeletal branches of the first order of the third tier.

In the second tier, 1–4 branches are selected and cut so that they are 15–20 cm shorter than the central conductor.

In the spring of the fourth year, the central conductor is cut off above a weak side shoot to reduce the growth of the tree. The side shoot itself is shortened to 50 cm.

The branches of the third tier are cut so that they become 20 cm shorter than the central conductor. If the side branches do not reach this length, then they and the central conductor are cut at the level of the weakest lower shoot of the third tier.

On the second and third tiers, the shoots of elongation of skeletal branches are shortened to 70–80 cm. If they have not reached this length, then they are not cut off. Shoots growing on skeletal branches vertically upward or inside the crown are removed, lateral shoots growing towards the periphery are cut off, leaving 70 cm, or not cut off if they are less than this length.

In subsequent years, pruning of skeletal branches is carried out according to the same principles as in the 4th year, but much weaker. Remove shoots longer than 50 cm, growing inside the crown or crossing. Of the shorter ones, only those that grow incorrectly are removed.

On the central conductor and skeletal branches, strong elongation shoots are removed, transferring them to lateral branches less than 50 cm long.

Pruning during the fruiting period of cherries involves thinning the crown and removing diseased and broken branches. The growth of the central conductor and skeletal branches is also restrained, transferring them to weak lateral shoots. This is especially true for the upper tier of the crown.

Rejuvenation is carried out when fruiting begins to fade. To do this, branches of all orders are shortened to two or three year old wood.

Tree height control

The height of fruit trees is very important for garden care. A tall tree is more difficult to care for. And at a low level it is easier to prune branches, treat against pests and diseases of the fruit tree, and harvest fruit.

Currently, gardening uses a method of caring for fruit trees that makes the gardener’s work easier and improves the living conditions of the fruit tree. Trees are not allowed to grow very tall. In the first years after planting, the central conductor is preserved, since during this period it is important in the formation of the crown. But later, it and the branches growing on it begin to shade the middle of the crown, depriving it of overhead lighting. Therefore, as soon as the tree reaches a height of 3.5–4 m, the central conductor with the branches growing on it is cut off above one of the conveniently placed and inclined branches (Fig. 15).

Rice. 16. Formation of the correct crown of a fruit tree without pruning

It is not too late to carry out such an operation on an older tree, removing some of the underlying branches along with the guide, but it is necessary to cut off above a strong side branch.

How to deal with lower hanging branches

There are hanging branches on the trees below, and amateur gardeners try to remove them. The lower branches to some extent protect the trunk from solar overheating, the leaves on them serve as an additional source of nutrition, they do not compete with the branches growing higher, and are themselves less developed.

When cutting such branches, wounds are formed that require nutrients to heal and can become foci of diseases of the tree bark.

Of course, to some extent, hanging branches make it difficult to care for the tree trunk. But this is important for large gardens where mechanized soil cultivation is carried out, and in small amateur gardens where work is carried out manually, hanging branches do not serve as a particular hindrance. The deviated branch is pulled with soft twine to the stem. It is not so difficult to lift the branches 2-3 times a year (when digging and loosening the soil, when applying fertilizers and watering) and carry out the necessary work (Fig. 17).

Rice. 17. Trimming the lower tier of fruit tree branches

Forming the correct crown of a fruit tree without a saw or garden pruner

In an amateur garden, you should try to correctly direct unnecessary branches so that you have less time to cut them out later.

If a branch is poorly placed in the crown of a tree, it interferes with the growth of other branches, drowns them out, and grows poorly itself. It's easier, of course, to cut it off. And there may be more than one such branch.

But the branch to be cut can be carefully pulled to the side, tilted or raised so that it occupies the free space of the crown, does not interfere with others, and itself finds itself in better growing conditions. After bending the crown into the free space, it is fixed in this position, for which wooden slats-spacers are used, or the branch is pulled back with a rope, hanging a load, etc. (Fig. 16, 18).

In this case, the bark of the branches should not be damaged. To do this, use soft pads under the spacers and at the attachment points. It is important to ensure that the strapping does not cut into the bark of thickening branches.

Stretching the branch will only be needed for one summer, then it can be removed, and the branch will remain in its given position.

In the first years, one should monitor the growth and development of young fruit trees and correct deficiencies correctly and in a timely manner, including straightening crooked branches and the tree trunk (Fig. 19).

During the pruning process, it is important for the amateur gardener to:

use only a sharp garden saw and well-sharpened garden pruners;

make the correct cuts, do not leave stumps that prevent wounds from healing;

wounds with a diameter of more than 1 cm should be covered with garden varnish or painted over with oil paint;

do not leave cut branches in the garden; they must be taken out of the garden and burned to avoid the spread of pests and diseases;

carefully move among the branches without damaging the twigs and buds.

Rice. 18. Formation of the correct crown of a fruit tree without pruning

Rice. 19. Straightening of crooked branches and trunks of trees: a – tying to a rail; b – tying to a stake

Features of pruning thick branches

When branches are cut carelessly, very dangerous splits in the bark can occur that take a long time to heal. This happens more often when cutting out large branches, so they are removed as follows.

It is necessary to step back from the base of the branch intended for cutting by 0.5–0.75 m and make a notch from below to approximately half the thickness of the branch. Then, retreating 15–20 cm higher along the branch, cut from above. The branch breaks off along the line of both cuts. The remaining part of it is cut down in the usual way, holding it with your hand from below (Fig. 20).

Rice. 20. Pruning thick branches of a fruit tree: a – the first cut of the branch from below; b – cut from above; c – the branch breaks off; g – remove the remaining part of the branch

Berry bushes

Traditionally, in our Central Black Earth region, black, red, yellow currants, gooseberries, raspberries, blackberries and other berry crops are grown.

Currants are one of the most common and favorite berry crops in our garden plots. With proper care, black currants can grow and bear fruit in one place for 10–15 years, and red currants - over 20 years.

The currant bush is formed in such a way that it contains up to four branches of different ages at the same time. Four-year-old branches that bear fruit are cut off at the base or transferred to a strong, well-placed lateral branch.

Gooseberries produce high yields, which are not very convenient to harvest. It does not respond well to strong shading and thickening. Accordingly, when shaping and pruning shrubs, you should strive for free placement of branches in the crown.

Fruiting gooseberry branches are quite durable - up to seven years or more. In an adult gooseberry, the crown is thinned by pruning excess shoots, as well as old, broken, weak and thickening branches. Many varieties of gooseberries are characterized by lodging of perennial branches. For them, it is important to change the direction of growth by transferring to vertically growing lateral branches.

Raspberries and blackberries are close relatives belonging to the same genus. These are semi-shrub plants. Their stems are short-lived; the bush is renewed annually due to root suckers. A raspberry stem lives for two years.

In spring, last year's shoots are slightly shortened. Shortening stimulates branching, and the more branches, the more abundant the harvest.

Every year after harvesting, two-year-old branches, as well as weak, damaged and excess shoots, are pruned off the bush. Leave the strongest and healthiest stems with a distance of 10–15 cm between them. There should be 10–12 branches per bush.

It is convenient to form blackberries on a trellis, tying young shoots in one direction and fruiting shoots in the other. In autumn, fruit-bearing stems of the bush are cut off at soil level.

Wood and bark of a fruit tree (with photo)

The wood (xylem) of a fruit tree consists mainly of conducting vessels of different diameters and with different wall thicknesses. Water with dissolved nutrients from the soil rises from the roots through xylem vessels. Another important function of wood is mechanical. The main elements of xylem - vessels - are composed of dead cells. The core is composed of living cells, which contain a supply of nutrients.

The main elements of the bark (phloem) are living sieve tubes, through which dissolved products of photosynthesis move from top to bottom, from leaves to all other organs, and dead bast fibers, which perform a mechanical function.

In woody plants, only the xylem and phloem elements of the current year are actively functioning, and the elements of previous years perform only a mechanical function.

Between the bark of the fruit tree and the wood there is a very important layer of cells - the cambium. The cambium cannot be seen without a microscope; it is one layer of dividing cells that ensures the annual thickening of the shoot, and as long as the cambium is alive, the shoot is alive. When a tree wakes up from winter sleep, cambium cells begin to actively divide. The signal for their awakening is an increase in temperature. The cambium deposits xylem elements inside, and elements (phloem) outside.

Outside the trunk there is a special tissue - cork cambium, from which cork is formed, which has high thermal insulation properties and air tightness, and for gas exchange it has special formations - lentils.

The age of a tree or branch can be determined by its growth rings - in harsh seasonal climates they are easily noticeable.

These photos show the bark and wood of fruit trees:

Fruit tree shoots and buds

The shoot of a fruit tree is a stem with leaves and buds located on it; quite often shoots, and more often shoot systems, are called branches.

The shoots can be herbaceous (in this case, in a seasonal climate, they die off every year, and new ones grow in the next season - like herbaceous plants) or woody, perennial - like trees and shrubs. Subshrubs occupy an intermediate position: every year the lower, woody part of the shoot is preserved, and the upper, herbaceous part dies off.

The structure of the kidney in the photo

A fruit tree bud is a rudimentary shoot. If you “gut” a bud and examine it under a magnifying glass, then under the bud scales you can see the buds of leaves (such buds are called vegetative or leaf buds), or the buds of flowers (generative or flower buds) - although more often in everyday life flower buds are called vegetative-generative or mixed - they contain both flower and leaf primordia. It is these buds that are the key to the future harvest. Usually the type of bud can be determined by its shape - vegetative ones are more slender and elongated, while generative and vegetative-generative ones are “pot-bellied”, and often noticeably larger.

Buds are also classified by location: in the axil of the leaf there is an axillary bud, and at the top of the shoot there is an apical bud. Normally, the apical bud always grows actively; this phenomenon is called apical dominance, it is caused by the balance of plant hormones. When the apical bud is damaged or removed, other growth points are awakened, which stimulates branching.

On the outside, the buds are protected by the bud scales from unfavorable factors, primarily from low temperatures and desiccation. These are modified leaves; when the bud opens and the shoot begins to grow, they fall off because they have already fulfilled their function. Scars remain on the shoot in this place - the so-called bud ring, and subsequently a ring influx is formed at the point where the lateral branch originates. By carefully looking at the branch and counting the bud rings - boundaries, annual growth - you can determine the age of the branch. With age, the bud rings become invisible, and they are best visible on 1-2 year old branches.

There are also buds on trees that are almost impossible to see. They are called dormant buds - they develop into full-fledged growth shoots and form a new crown in case of damage. Thus, to a large extent, due to dormant buds, trees recover after harsh winters, when damage to the crown is significant. But sometimes tops grow from dormant buds; they appear in the middle of summer, when the growth of annual growth slows down or even ends, always on old wood, directed upward and in one season can grow by several tens of centimeters and even one and a half to two meters. The abundance of tops is a signal of trouble: they are often formed on trees that are aging and weakened by diseases, pests or unfavorable environmental conditions, as well as due to errors in pruning. The tendency to form tops also largely depends on the variety. However, tops can also be useful: a well-placed and properly formed top can subsequently become a wonderful fruit-bearing branch.

A node is a section of a shoot from which a leaf emerges. Accordingly, an internode is a section of the stem between two adjacent nodes. Based on the length of the internodes, elongated and shortened shoots are distinguished. In trees, vegetative shoots usually rise to the required height, and then, when the plant begins to bear fruit, generative shoots are formed mainly from axillary buds. In most cases they are perennial.

In fruit trees, flower buds are located on special shoots - fruit formations, they are also called overgrowing branches. They are relatively short in length and have different names depending on their shape. The more overgrown branches, the higher the yield of the tree.

The longest fruit formations of pome crops are fruit twigs and spears. These are thin shoots with a generative bud at the top; under the weight of the fruit they, especially the spears (with a pointed tip), bend down. The crowns of such varieties are usually loose and prone to wilting, so they need to be thinned out.

The fruit bag is a “slingshot” with a thickened fork from which two fruiting twigs emerge.

Ringlets are the most common and desirable type of fruit formations in apple and pear trees. Their internodes are shortened, and the bud rings of different years form a characteristic cross-striped pattern. Some representatives of the fair sex, caring for the beauty of the tree, cut off the ugly short branches and are left without a harvest. Old ringlets can branch and live up to 10-15 years.

Modern varieties bear fruit on spikes; this trait is considered very desirable, as it is directly related to a compact and strong crown. Fruiting on ringlets In columnar apple trees, ringlets form directly on the trunk.

If a particular variety is characterized by long annual growths (more than 60 cm), then it is recommended to shorten them in order to stimulate the formation of ringlets from axillary buds.

Stone fruits may have bouquet branches - an analogue of the ringlets of apple trees - perennial fruit formations. In older cherry varieties, the fruit formations are short-lived and die off after one harvest. You can even see “blooming spines” on the plum tree, which are modified shoots.

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The main parts of a fruit tree, their purpose and relationship

In fruit plants, there are underground (root) and above-ground systems. Mostly the above-ground system is pruned. Naturally, without knowing its main parts, their purpose and relationship, the nature of growth and fruiting, biological and breed-varietal characteristics, it is difficult to build a correct pruning system.

The above-ground system of a fruit tree consists of a trunk, skeletal, semi-skeletal and overgrowing branches.

Trunk – the main vertical stem part (central axis) of the above-ground system; The place where the trunk meets the root is called the root collar. The lower part of the trunk from the root collar to the first skeletal branch is called the trunk, and the part of the trunk from the trunk to the base of the last year's growth is called the central conductor or leader.

Skeletal branches are the largest, making up the skeleton of the crown. Skeletal branches extending directly from the trunk are called branches of the first order of branching or main skeletal branches; branches of the second order are placed on them, branches of the third order are placed on the last ones, etc. In an apple tree, branching can reach 7 - 8 or more orders, of which the first 2 - 3 orders are skeletal.

Semi-skeletal branches are usually weak, thin, often drooping, 50–150 cm long. They stop growing early and become covered with overgrown branches. They are often also called fruiting branches.

Overgrowing branches are small, weak-growing branches covering skeletal and semi-skeletal branches. They bear most of the harvest, so they are often called generative or fruitful.

The totality of all branches of a tree is called crown . Depending on the species, variety, rootstock, age of the tree and growing conditions, naturally developing trees form a variety of crown shapes. They can be arbitrarily grouped into five main types: broom-shaped, pyramidal (cone-shaped), obverse-cone-shaped, spherical and widely spreading.

Skeletal and semi-skeletal branches are covered with numerous growth and fruiting structures. According to the strength of growth and morphological characteristics, they are divided into elongated (auxiblasts), which are characterized by strong growth, clearly defined internodes, well-formed lateral buds, and shortened (brachyblasts), the length of which does not exceed several centimeters, and the internodes are so shortened that it is possible to distinguish them very hard.

Shoots are called growths of the current year as long as they are covered with leaves, after leaf fall they are called branches, and from the new calendar year - growths of the previous year.

According to their position in space, they distinguish between vertical (orthotropic) and horizontal (plagiotropic) shoots, according to the type of buds - vegetative, in which all the buds are growth, and generative (fruitful), the apical bud of which, and sometimes part of the lateral ones, are flowering.

Based on their position on the supporting stem or branch, apical shoots are distinguished, which are also called terminal shoots, or continuation shoots, and lateral shoots.

Depending on the type of bud from which the shoot was formed, its placement on the branch and functional characteristics, the following shoots are distinguished.

Ordinary, or spring , are all shoots that develop normally at the beginning of each growing season from the apical and lateral buds of the previous year's growths.

Shoots of continuation, or shoots of elongation , of the central conductor, skeletal and semi-skeletal branches, which are formed from the apical buds of last year's growths.

Competitors are shoots formed from 1–2 buds closest to the apical one. As a rule, they branch off at an acute angle and grow just as strong, and sometimes even stronger, than the continuation shoots, which is why weak forks are obtained.

Summer, Midsummer, or premature shoots grow in a second wave of growth from buds that were formed in the current year and have been dormant for some time.

Spinning tops (spinning tops, fat shoots, or water shoots) are strong, vertically growing shoots that develop on perennial wood due to aging of the tree, improper pruning, broken branches, freezing and some other reasons. They usually grow upright, have long internodes and large leaves. Subsequently, growth weakens and they become ordinary branches. The ability to spinning depends on the variety: some varieties form a lot of spinning tops, others - very few.

Regenerative shoots appear as a result of disruption of correlative connections between above-ground and underground systems, mainly in places where these connections are disrupted. They are formed from dormant, spare and other buds. Their growth begins and ends later than that of ordinary (spring) shoots. This group also includes adventitious shoots formed from additional buds located on the side of the main one, from rudimentary formations present in the growth rings, in wound sites and on the roots.

Replacement shoots are growths that arose together with generative organs from mixed buds.

Root shoots are formed from buds formed on the roots. Adventitious roots are formed on the underground part of such shoots.

Thickening shoots form a special (conditional) group. These include all shoots formed in the nursery in the area of ​​the future tree trunk.

The length of annual growth is an important indicator of the activity of physiological processes, the age state of the tree and the effectiveness of the agricultural technology used. Growth over 40 cm for young trees and 35 cm for fruit-bearing trees is considered strong; moderate 30 – 40 and 25 – 35 cm, respectively; weak - less than 25 - 30 cm.

Strong growths contribute to the development of a large leaf area, which ensures good growth of young trees and high annual fruiting of adults. The weakening of growth processes leads to a decrease in the ratio between newly formed young and old unproductive fruit wood. As a result, the frequency of fruiting increases and the marketability of the crop decreases. Trees with strong growth are characterized by increased winter hardiness.

The fruits of pome trees are placed on overgrowing branches. They differ significantly in growth vigor and morphological characteristics.

A fruit twig is an annual branch 15–25 cm long. Usually thinner than a growth shoot, often curved downward; the apical bud can be both vegetative and generative. The placement of the buds is the same as that of growth shoots, but the internodes are shortened and the buds are less developed.

The spear is a straight annual growth 5–15 cm long, noticeably tapering towards the apex. It usually extends from the supporting branch at a right angle. The apical bud can be both vegetative and generative. The placement of the kidneys is close.

Ringlet is a short growth from 0.2 to 3 cm long, with underdeveloped lateral buds and one well-formed apical flower or growth bud. It departs from the supporting branch usually at a right angle. Weak ringlets with a small number of leaves in the rosette usually form a growth bud; with a large number of leaves, the bud may be floral. Sometimes, after one or several fruitings, the ringlet can germinate and become a vegetative branch.

Complex ringlet is a perennial fruiting branch consisting of several ringed growths without traces of fruiting.

Fruit bag is a swelling (thickening) of the terminal part of a fruit branch that bears fruit. At the site of attachment of the fruit, a mark remains that lasts the entire life of the tree. If the fruit is ripe, the mark is large; if it falls unripe, the mark is smaller. On the fruit bag below the fruiting site, depending on the varietal characteristics and agricultural technology, 1 - 2 ringlets or 1 - 2 or more replacement shoots in the form of spears, fruit twigs or growth shoots are formed.

Fruitlets, or fruitlets , are perennial fruit formations consisting of ringlets, short growths and fruit bags. Some fruit growers include young (not older than 2–3 years) but already fruit-bearing ringlets, spears, and twigs as fruit bearers; to the fruits there are more branched branches with several fruit bags.

A complex fruiting , or mixed overgrowing, branch consists of a large number of different types of overgrowing branches with traces of fruiting.

Branches and fruit formations bear buds, from which new branches or fruit formations subsequently develop.

A bud is a rudimentary shoot that is in a state of relative dormancy. It consists of an axis, a growth cone, leaf primordia, flowers and buds.

The buds are formed in the axils of the leaves and are therefore called axillary (axillary). The place of attachment of the leaf petiole and bud is called a node, the part of the growth between adjacent nodes is called an internode.

Based on their structure and organ formation, buds are divided into vegetative (growth, leaf) and generative (flower, fruit). This division is conditional, since under appropriate conditions, vegetative buds can develop into generative ones and vice versa. There are also mixed vegetative-generative buds.

Generative buds in all fruit species are usually round and larger than vegetative ones. They can be simple, or purely flowering (for stone fruits), and mixed (for pome-bearing species and berry bushes). From simple buds only flowers and fruits develop. After fruiting, a scar remains in place of a simple bud. From the mixed fruit buds, along with the reproductive organs, leaves and growths develop in the form of ringlets, spears, twigs and shoots.

Vegetative buds produce shoots of varying lengths or rosettes of leaves.

In pome-bearing species, usually one bud develops normally in the leaf axil, but on both sides of this bud in the axils of the stipules there is another almost invisible bud: they begin to grow if the main one dies. They are called additional or reserve.

Not all buds formed in a given season germinate the next year. Some buds, primarily located at the base of annual growths, remain apparently inactive for a number of years. In fact, as the branches thicken, their axes lengthen, due to which the viability of such buds remains in apple and pear trees, for example, for decades.

Buds are found not only where leaves were. With severe pruning or breaking of branches, buds quickly form from callus and a group of parenchyma cells, giving rise to regenerative shoots. These are the so-called accessory, adventitious, or provisional buds. They often form on the roots of cherries, plums, apple trees, etc.

Depending on their location on the branch (shoot), apical (terminal) and lateral (collateral) buds are distinguished.

Apical (terminal) is located at the end of a growing branch or its branch. With the development of such a bud (if it is not a flower bud), a shoot with internodes and leaves grows, ending again with an apical bud. Lateral (collateral) buds are formed in the axils of the leaves. For convenience when pruning, they are distinguished between internal and external. Internal ones are placed on the side of the branch that faces the central axis of the crown; external - on the growth side facing the periphery of the crown.

Based on the time of germination, buds are divided into early ripening, germinating in the year of formation, and late ripening, germinating at the beginning of the next growing season.

The leaf is one of the most important vegetative organs of the plant. Botanically, it is considered part of the shoot. The main functions of the leaf are transpiration and photosynthesis. About 90 - 95% of the dry substances used by the plant to build all organs (including the crop) are products of photosynthesis. Transpiration prevents leaf overheating.

The leaf consists of a blade and a petiole. The top and bottom of the plate is covered with protective tissue - the epidermis. The lower epidermis contains a large number of stomata, through which gas and water exchange with the surrounding atmosphere occurs. Between the upper and lower skin is the mesophyll. Under the upper skin lies a columnar, or polysadial, tissue. A spongy fabric is placed under the polysad fabric. The first is more suitable for photosynthesis, the second - for transpiration.

Leaf structure and photosynthetic capacity are determined by lighting conditions. In a large crown, the light regime is unequal. In the depths of the crown of an adult tree, the level of illumination is 10–15 or more times lower than at the periphery. Therefore, the closer to the center the sheet is placed, the thinner its plate becomes. The potential intensity of photosynthesis of such leaves also decreases significantly. Light curves of photosynthesis show that each leaf responds to increased light by increasing activity up to a certain value. In general, a leaf photosynthesizes most productively under the lighting in which it formed and grew.

The morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics of leaves located in different places of the shoot are not the same. The lower ones are formed within 2 – 5 days and reach 3 – 4 cm2. They work intensively and quickly end their life cycle. Medium leaves grow in 30–45 days. Their size is up to 80 cm2 or more. The upper leaves grow more intensively than the middle ones, but they are smaller. The leaves of the middle part of the shoot are most productive.

Leaves located directly next to the fruit photosynthesize more intensely than those on non-fruiting overgrowing branches, although they are usually smaller in size.

The efficiency of leaf assimilation can be controlled within wide limits by agricultural technology. One of the most essential links in agricultural technology in this regard is pruning. Using various methods of shaping and pruning, the fruit grower must create such a structure of the crown of a tree or a row of trees in which all the leaves are in the most favorable lighting conditions for photosynthesis - 70 - 100% of full in an open area. In the future, through systematic pruning, it is necessary to prevent a deterioration in the light conditions and thereby promote the most productive activity of all leaves.